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THE EFFECTS OF EMBEDDED QUESTION TYPE AND LOCUS OF CONTROL ON
PROCESSING DEPTH, KNOWLEDGE GAIN, AND ATTITUDE CHANGE
IN A COMPUTER-BASED INTERACTIVE VIDEO ENVIRONMENT

by

Michael W. Mitchell

Robert C. Williges, Chairman
Industrial and Systems Engineering

The differential effectiveness of two types of adjunct embedded questions in facilitating deep processing, increased knowledge gain, and increased positive attitude change was examined in this two-session laboratory study. In session one, subjects completed a measure of locus of control (LOC) orientation, as well as measures of pretest knowledge and attitudes regarding drinking. Two weeks later, stratified assignment was used to place 33 subjects (ages 12 to 15) in one of the three levels of question condition (no questions, factual questions, and inference questions) to study a computer-based instructional program about alcohol education during the second session.

Subjects assigned to either of the two embedded question conditions were asked to answer ten questions embedded between segments of interactive video. Depending on question condition, subjects were asked to provide factual information or draw inferences and conclusions regarding the previous video segment. After each question, subjects were asked to rate the amount of effort required to answer the preceding question. Control group subjects viewed interactive video without embedded questions or effort rating scales. Reaction-time trials were distributed throughout the multimedia program and were received by all subjects to establish a baseline reaction-time measure. Immediately following the instructional program, subjects completed posttest measures of knowledge and attitudes regarding alcohol.

Results provided limited support for the hypothesis that embedded questions would facilitate positive attitude change; however, embedded questions did not appear to facilitate knowledge gain. Results also provided support for the hypothesis that subjects with internal LOC orientations would be associated with greater positive changes in knowledge gain. Other hypotheses related to depth of processing were not supported by the results of this study. No differences were observed between embedded question types on the reaction-time and mental effort rating measures of depth of processing. Furthermore, no differences were observed across LOC orientation on either of the depth of processing measures. A number of methodological issues are thought to have contributed to this limited support of the hypotheses in this study. These issues, and their potential impact and solutions are discussed with respect to future research.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Recent technological developments are finding their way into the ever changing field of education. Educators, interested in providing more effective instruction, are continually introducing state-of-the-art technology into the learning environment (Cennamo, Savenye, & Smith, 1991). The emergence of computer-based technologies such as computer-assistedinstruction (CAI), interactive videodisc, compact disc-interactive (CD-I) and digital video interactive (DVI), has produced unprecedented interest within the instructional community regarding the role of such technologies in instructional and training system design.

Computer-based interactive video (CBIV) is another relatively new instructional medium which holds considerable promise for improved instruction. Due to its complimentary blend of computer control and video, CBIV offers a great degree of flexibility, making its application appropriate for several types of learners, subject matter areas, and types of learning. In addition, there exists a growing body of research which supports the contention that interactive video learning is effective (Evans, 1986).

Although these technological advances show great promise in the field of education, their use alone does not guarantee improved instruction or learning (Hannafin & Rieber, 1989b). Research directed at issues such as the instructional methods employed, the cognitive processes engaged, and the effectiveness of content structuring should be conducted to help determine how and when such advancements would prove most beneficial in the educational arena (Jost, 1992).

Research and evaluation of such new educational technologies has typically involved experimental and quasi-experimental designs to compare one instructional technology with another. Although this paradigm has been in place for at least 30 years, it has met with rather unfavorable criticism and produced few useful results (Clark, 1983; Hoban, 1958; Reeves, 1986). Evans (1986) suggests that rather than simply comparing interactive video learning with more traditional forms of instruction, research on interactive video should focus on those attributes which can maximize the effectiveness of the medium, and the interaction of those attributes with different learner characteristics across various applications. As learner involvement is essential to any instructional program and interactive video is a medium based on interactivity, it would follow that determining how interactivity can best be used in the creation of meaningful involvement should be a major focus of the research in this area (Evans, 1986).

Based on the levels of processing viewpoint put forth by Craik and Lockhart (1972), this study investigated the utility of two different types of embedded questions for increasing meaningful involvement with the instructional materials in terms of facilitating deeper processing and improved learning of those materials. Furthermore, the interaction between embedded question type and the learner characteristic of locus of control (LOC) orientation was investigated as it is believed to effect motivation and ability to learn (Goldstein, 1993), as well as the depth at which information is processed (Thal, Harris, & Stock, 1983). More specifically, the purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of embedded question type (factual vs. inference) on processing depth, knowledge gain, and attitude change regarding alcohol use among adolescents of varying LOC orientation.

The domain of instruction for the current study involved adolescent alcohol education and was presented using a computer-based multimedia program involving text, graphics, linear video, and interactive video. This multimedia program was developed by the author while employed by American Research Corporation of Virginia (ARCOVA), Radford, Virginia, under contract for the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. The instructional domain of alcohol education was selected due to the author's familiarity with the project and topic area, as well as its relative importance to adolescent well-being.

Chapter 5: Discussion (Excerpts)

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the differential effectiveness of two types of embedded questions (factual vs. inference) on processing depth, attitude change, and knowledge gain. Based on the literature (Hannafin, 1989; Hannafin & Rieber, 1989a; Hooper & Hannafin, 1991; Wager & Wager, 1985), it was expected that the addition of embedded questions would enhance the processing of information presented to the subjects via interactive video and that more thought-provoking questions (i.e., those requiring inferences and conclusions) would promote deeper processing than questions that merely required factual information to be provided. It was reasoned that those questions that promote the deepest processing would be associated with the greatest gains in knowledge and attitude change. Further, it was thought that if such thoughtprovoking questions were designed to direct the subject to draw on personal experience, processing would be further enhanced (McFarland, Frey, & Rhodes, 1980).

Evans (1986) stated that the research in the area of interactive video could best be furthered by investigating the interaction of those characteristics which make the medium unique and user characteristics that might influence the use of such learning environments. As such, this study investigated the effects of subjects' LOC orientation and embedded question type on processing depth, knowledge gain, and attitude change.

Plagued by a number of methodological shortcomings, the research hypotheses for this study received very limited support from the analyses. The most notable of these methodological problems involve a severely flawed reaction-time measure, a conceptually undemanding instructional domain, and confounding settings for pre- and posttest administration of questionnaires.

The overall lack of significance on all of the paired t-tests conducted on the individual attitude constructs indicates that, regardless of experimental condition, no significant overall change in attitude occurred. Although contrary to contentions made in the literature (Jost, 1992), this seems to suggest that the use of interactive video may not be appropriate when a training program's goals include attitude change. To be fair, the intervention used in the current study was admittedly brief and it is quite possible that extended interventions would result in more favorable outcomes. Furthermore, the exploratory analyses yielded mixed findings that provide only limited support to the attitude-related hypotheses. Although the use of factual or inference embedded questions did little to increase the effectiveness of interactive video for changing alcohol-related attitudes, the lack of clear evidence suggests that more research be conducted in this area to determine appropriate durations for interventions across a number of topic areas to be effective at promoting attitude change.

Although recognition, recall, and composite knowledge constructs each showed a significant positive pre- to posttest change in the paired t-tests, no significant main effects were observed across experimental group. This would suggest that interactive video may be an appropriate choice for knowledge-based training applications, although it is unclear whether the use of factual or inference embedded questions would increase the effectiveness of interactive video for learning. It is likely that the lack of a concept-rich topic area did not provide enough challenge to expose the benefits of the embedded questions. As such, further research is needed in this area as it is quite possible that the differential effectiveness of these embedded question types would be realized in more cognitively-demanding topic areas with respect to knowledge gain.